Bagaimana Tubuh Kita “Menahan” Serangan Luar?

Oleh: Arda Dinata
Email: arda.dinata@gmail.com

TAHUKAH temen-temen, kalau dalam tubuh kita ini terdapat cara-cara perlindungan dari berbagai penyakit yang mengagumkan? Itulah sistem kekebalan tubuh. Ia dirancang untuk melindungi dan melawan jutaan bibit penyakit, seperti bakteri, mikroba, virus dan parasit yang mencoba masuk ke tubuh. Tahukah kamu bagaimana sebenarnya tubuh kita menahan serangan luar itu?

Selama daya tahan tubuh temen-temen bekerja, maka walaupun tubuh kita diserang oleh bakteri, mikroba, parasit, maka tak ada satupun dari mereka yang dapat masuk ke tubuh. Sebaliknya, saat sistem kekebalan ini berhenti, maka pintu pun terbuka lebar. Ketika orang meninggal, hanya dibutuhkan beberapa minggu bagi mereka untuk melepaskan kekuatan daya tahan (kekebalan) orang itu, hingga hanya tersisa kerangka. Sungguh sistem kekebalan kita melakukan sesuatu yang mengagumkan untuk menjaga dan melindungi semuanya dari apa yang terjadi selama kita hidup.

Sistem kekebalan tubuh kita ini bekerja dengan ribuan cara yang berbeda. Satu hal yang mesti temen-temen waspadai adalah ketika sistem kekebalan kita mengalami kegagalan karena suatu sebab. Hal ini, dapat temen-temen ketahui ketika terjadi suatu efek samping yang dapat dilihat atau dirasakan. Sebagai contoh adalah ketika kita mendapatkan luka, semua jenis bakteri dan virus memasuki tubuh kita melalui luka di kulit. Ketika kulit kita terbelah (karena kayu, misalnya) maka kita juga mendapatkan potongan kayu sebagai benda asing yang memasuki badan kita. Sistem kekebalan kita memberi tanggapan dan mengeliminasi para penyusup ketika kulit menyembuhkan dirinya sendiri dan menutup lukanya.

Dalam kasus yang jarang terjadi, sistem kekebalan kehilangan sesuatu dan luka menjadi terinfeksi. Kemudian terjadi peradangan dan terkadang luka tersebut bernanah. Peradangan dan nanah adalah efek samping dari tidak bekerjanya sistem kekebalan tubuh kita. Begitu juga ketika seekor nyamuk menggigit temen-temen, maka kulit bekas gigitan nyamuk akan menjadi merah, menjadi bengkak dan gatal. Itu juga menunjukkan sistem kekebalan tubuh kita sedang bekerja.

Di sini, kalau temen-temen perhatikan lebih jauh tentang sistem kekebalan tubuh itu, maka ada beberapa jalan yang menyebabkan seseorang menjadi sakit. Bisa melalui kerusakan pada organ mekanik tubuh. Misalnya, jika kita mengalami patah tulang maka tubuh kita tidak akan dapat bekerja sebagaimana harusnya.

Kondisi sakit juga bisa karena kekurangan vitamin atau mineral. Jika kita tidak mendapatkan vitamin D yang cukup dalam tubuh, maka ia tidak akan dapat menggunakan kalsium sehingga kita akan sakit. Orang yang terkena penyakit ini tulangnya akan melemah (akan mudah patah) karena tulang tidak dapat tumbuh dengan baik sepenuhnya. Begitu pun, jika temen-temen tidak cukup memiliki vitamin C, maka kita akan sakit sariawan, yang menyebabkan gusi bengkak dan berdarah. Jika kita tidak cukup zat besi, maka akan terkena anemia, dll.

Selanjutnya, orang sakit juga bisa akibat penurunan fungsi organ tubuh. Dalam beberapa kasus, organ tubuh yang mengalami kerusakan atau lemah. Sebagai misal, penyakit jantung disebabkan oleh penyumbatan saluran darah yang menuju otot jantung, sehingga jantung tidak mendapatkan darah yang cukup. Penyakit liver, disebabkan oleh kerusakan sel-sel liver (salah satu penyebabnya adalah minum-minuman alkohol).

Kondisi sakit juga bisa akibat penyakit turunan genetik. Penyakit ini disebabkan kesalahan dalam pengkodean di dalam tubuh. Kesalahan pengkodean menyebabkan terlalu banyak atau terlalu sedikit protein, dan itu menimbulkan masalah dalam bagian sel tersebut. Sebagai contoh, albino disebabkan kekurangan suatu enzim yang disebut Tyrosin. Enzim yang hilang itu berarti bahwa tubuh tidak dapat membuat melanin, pigmen alami yang menjadikan warna rambut, warna mata dan pencoklatan. Oleh karena kehilangan melanin, orang-orang dengan permasalahan genetik menjadi sangat sensitif dengan sinar ultra violet.

Kodisi sakit juga bisa diakibatkan masuknya bakteri atau virus ke dalam tubuh. Ketika suatu virus atau bakteri menyerang tubuh temen-temen dan berkembangbiak, ia pasti menyebabkan masalah. Secara umum keberadaannya akan menghasilkan beberapa efek samping yang membuat sakit. Sebagai contoh, bakteri penyebab sakit tenggorokan (Streptococcus) mengeluarkan racun yang menyebabkan peradangan dalam tenggorokan. Beberapa bakteri tidak berbahaya atau bermanfaat (misalnya, jutaan bakteri dalam perut yang membantu penyerapan makanan), tetapi banyak juga yang membahayakan jika mereka masuk dalam tubuh atau aliran darah.

Nah.. teman-teman, secara singkat dapat dikatakan kalau sistem daya tahan tubuh kita ini bekerja dengan tiga cara. Pertama, menciptakan penghalang yang mencegah bakteri dan virus masuk ke dalam tubuh. Kedua, jika virus dan bakteri masuk ke dalam tubuh, sistem kekebalan mencoba untuk menghalau dan mengeliminasinya sebelum mereka membuat markas dan berkembang di dalam tubuh. Dan ketiga, jika virus atau bakteri berhasil berkembang dan mulai menyebabkan masalah, sistem kekebalan tubuh kita mulai mengeliminasinya. Untuk itu, biar kita tetap sehat, maka pertahankanlah kondisi daya tahan tubuh kita. (Arda Dinata, berbagi sumber)***

Penulis Pendiri Majelis Inspirasi Alquran dan Realitas Alam (MIQRA) Indonesia.

Daun Landep Sebagai Peluruh Kencing

Oleh: Arda Dinata
Email: arda.dinata@gmail.com

AIR KENCING Anda tidak lancar? Jangan dulu panik. Kenalilah tumbuhan yang satu ini dan nikmati berbagai khasiat yang ditawarkannya. Itulah tumbuhan landep (Barleria prionitis L.). Landep biasa tumbuh di daerah yang beriklim kering. Biasanya tumbuh liar atau ditanam untuk pagar pada daerah yang memiliki dataran rendah sampai 400 meter di atas permukaan laut.

Menurut penelitian, daun landep mengandung saponin, flavonoida, tanin, garam kalium dan silikat. Sedangkan akar mengandung saponin, flavonoida dan polifenol. Dan karena kandungan itulah, barangkali mengapa orang-orang farmasi banyak menggunakan kedua bagian dari tumbuhan landep ini yang dijadikan sebagai bahan baku obat tradisonal dan modern.

Nama tumbuhan landep ini bermacam-macam. Tumbuhan yang berasal dari daratan Asia tropik dan Afrika Selatan ini, di daerah Sumatera dinamakan bunga landak; jarong, kembang landep dan landep di Jawa; dan landhep di Madura.

Tumbuhan ini termasuk perdu. Memiliki tinggi antara 1,5 - 2 meter. Bentuk tanamannya batang berkayu, segi empat, berbuku-buku, berambut, berduri kuat yang terdapat pada ketiak-ketiak daun. Bentuk daunnya merupakan daun tunggal dengan kondisi pada daun muda berambut, letak berhadapan, panjang tangkai daun 4 - 8 milimeter.

Selain itu, helai daunnya jorong sampai lanset atau bundar telur memanjang, ujung meruncing, pangkal meruncing dan menyempit sepanjang tangkai, tepi rata agak berombak, panjang 2 - 28 centimeter, lebar 2 - 6,5 centimeter. Sementara itu bagian pertulangan menyirip, warnanya hijau.

Pada bagian bunga, terlihat bentuk bunga tunggal, simetris dua sisi, di ketiak daun, mahkota bertaju hijau, bentuk elips memanjang, warnanya kuning. Sementara pada buah seperti buah kotak, bulat telur, pipih, ujung agak lancip, keras, terbagi dua, warnanya hijau. Biji bulat telur, pipih mengkilap seperti beludu, warna cokelat. Dan tumbuhan ini dapat diperbanyak dengan biji atau setek batang.

* *

TERNYATA daun landep memiliki beberapa khasiat yang patut dibanggakan. Salah satunya adalah berkhasiat sebagai peluruh kencing (diuretik), tonik, pereda demam (antiperik) dan peluruh dahak. Akar landep berkhasiat sebagai pereda demam (antiperik). Sementara itu, kulit kayunya berkhasiat sebagai peluruh dahak dan peluruh keringat (diaforetik).

Menurut hasil penelitian Trifena Fenny Gowinda (1992), dari Fakultas Farmasi Universitas Widya Mandala, menyebutkan bahwa rebusan daun landep dan daun kumis kucing yang diberikan pada tikus putih menunjukkan kenaikan pengeluaran air kencing secara bermakna. Di antar rebusan daun landep konsentrasi 20%, 40% dan rebusan daun kumis kucing konsentrasi 10%, 40% tidak menunjukkan perbedaan bermakna.

Sementara itu, untuk penyembuhan luka, kurap, panu, rematik, sakit pinggang, sakit kepala, sakit gigi, gusi nyeri dan berdarah, demam, sakit perut, kencing tidak lancar manfaatkan resep berikut ini.

Untuk pemakaian luar daun segar secukupnya digiling halus, seperti untuk pengobatan rematik, nyeri punggung, panu, sakit kepala dan sakit gigi. Sedangkan bagian akar biasanya untuk obat demam, luka, kurap.

Untuk mengatasi kurap dan panu, ambil akar landep secukupnya lalu digiling halus. Tambahkan air perasan satu buah jeruk nipis, lalu diaduk merata sampai seperti bubur. Setelah itu, balurkan pada kurap dan dibalut. Lakukan pergantian dua kali sehari, sampai sembuh.

Untuk menyembuhkan luka, lakukan sebanyak 15 gram akar daun landep dicuci bersih. Tambahkan seperempat sendok teh kapur sirih, lalu tumbuk sampai lumat. Baru setelah itu, siap ramuan tersebut ditempelkan pada luka.

Untuk meredakan dan mengobati sakit gigi, maka kunyahlah daun landep dengan gigi yang sakit. Namun, pada kondisi gusi nyeri dan berdarah, maka caranya adalah daun landep segar dicuci lalu digiling halus. Air perasanya ditambahkan sedikit madu. Lalu campuran ini digunakan untuk memoles gusi yang sakit tersebut.

Untuk menghilangkan rematik, sakit pinggang, dan sakit kepala, lakukan segenggam daun landep segar dicuci lalu digiling halus. Tambahkan air kapur sirih secukupnya sambil diaduk merata sampai menjadi seperti bubur kental. Baru setelah itu, balurkan ke bagian tubuh yang sakit. Dan pada penderita sakit kepala, maka balurkan di keningnya.

Pada penderita demam, sakit perut, dan kencing tidak lancar, maka anda dapat mencobanya dengan cara sebanyak satu genggam daun landep segar dicuci lalu diseduh dengan satu gelas air panas. Setelah airnya dingin kemudian disaring, lalu hasil saringannya diminum.

Akhirnya, walaupun tumbuhan landep ini memiliki berbagai khasiat bagi kesehatan, yang jelas masyarakat mengenal daun landep memiliki bau yang lemah dan rasa agak kelat. Itulah barangkali penyebab mengapa sebagian orang belum memanfaatkan langsung tumbuhan landep ini secara optimal. [Arda Dinata/ berbagai sumber].

Penulis Pendiri Majelis Inspirasi Alquran dan Realitas Alam (MIQRA) Indonesia.

Sakit, Obat dan Bisnis

Konsultasi-Kesehatan : Message: Obat palsu, bisnis besar nan mematikan
Perputaran uang yang sangat besar di bisnis obat palsu telah menjadi ... Padahal obat-obat tadi didapat dari pengepul sampah di rumah sakit-rumah sakit. ...health.groups.yahoo.com/group/Konsultasi-Kesehatan/message/2524 - 31k - Tembolok - Halaman sejenis

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Secrets on How You Can Get Relief Quickly and Easily!

"Ooohhh? my aching knee!!!" Insider Secrets on How You Can Get Relief Quickly and Easily!

When your knee hurts, getting relief is all that's on your mind. Getting the right relief, though, depends on knowing what's wrong. The correct diagnosis will lead to the correct treatment.

Know Your Knee!The knee is the largest joint in the body. It's also one of the most complicated. The knee joint is made up of four bones that are connected by muscles, ligaments, and tendons. The femur (large thigh bone) interacts with the two shin bones, the tibia (the larger one) located towards the inside and the fibula (the smaller one) located towards the outside. Where the femur meets the tibia is termed the joint line. The patella, (the knee cap) is the bone that sits in the front of the knee. It slides up and down in a groove in the lower part of the femur (the femoral groove) as the knee bends and straightens.

Ligaments are the strong rope-like structures that help connect bones and provide stability. In the knee, there are four major ligaments. On the inner (medial) aspect of the knee is the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and on the outer (lateral) aspect of the knee is the lateral collateral ligament (LCL). The other two main ligaments are found in the center of the knee. These ligaments are called the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). They are called cruciate ligaments because the ACL crosses in front of the PCL. Other smaller ligaments help hold the patella in place in the center of the femoral groove.

Two structures called menisci sit between the femur and the tibia. These structures act as cushions or shock absorbers. They also help provide stability for the knee. The menisci are made of a tough material called fibrocartilage. There is a medial meniscus and a lateral meniscus. When either meniscus is damaged it is called a "torn cartilage".

There is another type of cartilage in the knee called hyaline cartilage. This cartilage is a smooth shiny material that covers the bones in the knee joint. In the knee, hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the femur, the femoral groove, the top of the tibia and the underside of the patella. Hyaline cartilage allows the knee bones to move easily as the knee bends and straightens.

Tendons connect muscles to bone. The large quadriceps muscles on the front of the thigh attach to the top of the patella via the quadriceps tendon. This tendon inserts on the patella and then continues down to form the rope-like patellar tendon. The patellar tendon in turn, attaches to the front of the tibia. The hamstring muscles on the back of the thigh attach to the tibia at the back of the knee. The quadriceps muscles are the muscles that straighten the knee. The hamstring muscles are the main muscles that bend the knee.

Bursae are small fluid filled sacs that decrease the friction between two tissues. Bursae also protect bony structures. There are many different bursae around the knee but the ones that are most important are the prepatellar bursa in front of the knee cap, the infrapatellar bursa just below the kneecap, the anserine bursa, just below the joint line and to the inner side of the tibia, and the semimembranous bursa in the back of the knee. Normally, a bursa has very little fluid in it but if it becomes irritated it can fill with fluid and become very large.

Is it bursitis... or tendonitis...or arthritis?

Tendonitis generally affects either the quadriceps tendon or patellar tendon. Repetitive jumping or trauma may set off tendonitis. The pain is felt in the front of the knee and there is tenderness as well as swelling involving the tendon. With patellar tendonitis, the infrapatellar bursa will often be inflamed also. Treatment involves rest, ice, and anti-inflammatory medication. Injections are rarely used. Physical therapy with ultrasound and iontopheresis may help.

Bursitis pain is common. The prepatellar bursa may become inflamed particularly in patients who spend a lot of time on their knees (carpet layers). The bursa will become swollen. The major concern here is to make sure the bursa is not infected. The bursa should be aspirated (fluid withdrawn by needle) by a specialist. The fluid should be cultured. If there is no infection, the bursitis may be treated with anti-jnflammatory medicines, ice, and physical therapy. Knee pads should be worn to prevent a recurrence once the initial bursitis is cleared up.

Anserine bursitis often occurs in overweight people who also have osteoarthritis of the knee. Pain and some swelling is noted in the anserine bursa. Treatment consists of steroid injection, ice, physical therapy, and weight loss.

The semimembranous bursa can be affected when a patient has fluid in the knee (a knee effusion). The fluid will push backwards and the bursa will become filled with fluid and cause a sensation of fullness and tightness in the back of the knee. This is called a Baker's cyst. If the bursa ruptures, the fluid will dissect down into the calf. The danger here is that it may look like a blood clot in the calf. A venogram and ultrasound test will help differentiate a ruptured Baker's cyst from a blood clot. The Baker's cyst is treated with aspiration of the fluid from the knee along with steroid injection, ice, and elevation of the leg.Knock out knee arthritis... simple steps you can take! Younger people who have pain in the front of the knee have what is called patellofemoral syndrome (PFS). Two major conditions cause PFS. The first is chondromalacia patella. This is a condition where the cartilage on the underside of the knee cap softens and is particularly common in young women. Another cause of pain behind the knee cap in younger people may be a patella that doesn't track normally in the femoral groove. For both chondromalacia as well as a poorly tracking patella, special exercises, taping, and anti-inflammatory medicines may be helpful. If the patellar tracking becomes a significant problem despite conservative measures, surgery is need.

While many types of arthritis may affect the knee, osteoarthritis is the most common. Osteoarthritis usually affects the joint between the femur and tibia in the medial (inner) compartment of the knee. Osteoarthritis may also involve the joint between the femur and tibia on the outer side of the knee as well as the joint between the femur and patella. Why osteoarthritis develops is still being scrutinized carefully. It seems to consist of a complex interaction of genetics, mechanical factors, and immune system involvement. The immune system attacks the joint through a combination of degradative enzymes and inflammatory chemical messengers called cytokines.

Patients will sometimes feel a sensation of rubbing or grinding. The knee will become stiff if the patient sits for any length of time. With local inflammation, the patient may experience pain at night and get relief from sleeping with a pillow between the knees. Occasionally, locking and clicking may be noticed. Patients with osteoarthritis may also tear the fibrocartilage cushions (menisci) in the knee more easily than people without osteoarthritis.

So how is the arthritis treated? An obvious place to start is weight reduction for patients who carry around too many pounds.Strengthening exercises for the knee are also useful for many people. These should be done under the supervision of a physician or physical therapist.

Other therapies include ice, anti inflammatory medicines, and occasionally steroid injections. Glucosamine and chondroitin supplements may be helpful. A word of caution... make sure the preparation you buy is pure and contains what the label says it does. The supplement industry is unregulated... so buyer beware!Injections of the knee with viscosupplements - lubricants- are particularly useful for many patients. Special braces may help to unload the part of the joint that is affected.

Arthroscopic techniques may be beneficial in special circumstances. Occasionally, a surgical procedure called an osteotomy, where a wedge of bone is removed from the tibia to "even things out," may be recommended. Joint replacement surgery is required for end stage knee arthritis.

Research is being done to develop medicines that will slow down the rate of cartilage loss. Targets for these new therapies include the destructive enzymes and/or cytokines that degrade cartilage. It is hoped that by inhibiting these enzymes and cytokines and by boosting the ability of cartilage to repair itself, that therapies designed to actually reverse osteoarthritis may be created. These are referred to as disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs or "DMOADs." Genetic markers may identify high risk patients who need more aggressive therapies.

Newer compounds that are injected into the knee and provide healing as well as lubrication are also being developed. And finally, less invasive surgical techniques are also being looked at. Recent technological advances in "mini" knee replacement look very promising.
By Dr. Wei

Prevent Foot Problems

Prevent Foot Problems

Prevent Foot Problems When Walking
Americans are on the go. According to a NSGA Survey, 71 million American adults are exercise walkers, making walking the top sport in the United States. Taking steps daily to improve health will help with America's obesity epidemic. Sixty five percent of Americans are overweight, which is linked to diabetes, heart disease, arthritis and some types of cancer. Walking an extra 2000 steps a day is equivalent to walking a distance of 1 mile and to burning 100 calories. Burning an extra 100 calories a day is equivalent to losing about 10 pounds in a year.The American Podiatric Medical Association teamed with Prevention Magazine to name the "12 Best Walking Cities in the U.S." The cities were examined based on their crime rate, air quality, mass transit, historic sites, museums, parks and gyms. The top 12 cities were San Francisco, San Diego, Honolulu, Washington, DC, San Antonio, El Paso, St. Louis, Madison, Chicago, Philadelphia, New York and New Jersey.National campaigns, health practitioners and even major corporations are encouraging Americans to walk more. Unfortunately, many sedentary individuals who start walking programs quickly develop foot problems. Almost sixty million Americans have foot problems and many develop them after beginning a new exercise routine. A foot injury can take weeks, even months to heal and many will gain more weight during this healing period. Preventing these problems through education will keep Americans walking.1. Buy a shoe made for walking. Make sure the shoe has enough stability and support. If you can fold the shoe in half, it is too flexible. Make sure the shoe has enough room at the toes and is fitted well at the heel.2. Start on flat surfaces. Do not start a walking program walking on hills or stairs.3. Start with a short distance. Stick with that distance for a week. If you are pain free and injury free, increase the distance the following week.4. Start with an easy pace. Increase your pace gradually.5. Choose soft surfaces. Walking on a track or a trail will decrease the impact on your feet and legs. Cement can be a particularly hard surface to walk on.6. Limit your time on the treadmill. Treadmills can contribute to the development of foot problems. Start with the treadmill flat and at a slow pace. Slowly increase your pace each week. Increase the incline after you have reached a comfortable pace.7. Stop if you feel foot or ankle pain. Don't try to walk through the pain.8. Examine your feet. Look areas of rub or irritation the first few weeks of your walking program and then again after trying new shoes or socks. Moleskin can be placed on areas of irritation to help decrease friction. Do not use bandaids on these areas.9. Consider wearing orthotics. Individuals with flat feet may need inserts for their shoes. When buying inserts, look for sport othotics, as opposed to cushioned insoles. A more rigid insert will offer more support. Custom orthotics can be made by a podiatrist if necessary.10. Avoid cotton socks. Synthetic socks decrease friction, prevent excess rubbing and don't absorb moisture. Your local running store or sports store should carry a variety of new high-tech socks for walking.Consult your podiatrist if you start to develop pain when walking, or consider a visit before embarking on your new walking program.By Christine Dobrowolski

MEDICAL AND MEDICINE

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Usulan Bentuk Kerjasama*
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Definitions and Terminology

Morphine belongs to a large group of drugs designated in pharmacology as narcotics. In therapy a distinction is usually made between four principal types of narcotic - ([1] ) analgesics(pain-killing drugs), ([2] ) hypnotics(sleep-inducing drugs), ([3] ) sedatives(soothing drugs) and ([4] ) anaesthetics(drugs inducing unconsciousness). The lines of demarcation between these groups are not clearly drawn, and depend usually in part on the size of the dose.


Administered in proper doses and at the appropriate time, morphine can act either as a sedative, as a hypnotic, or-particularly in combination with other drugs-as an anaesthetic (for example, morphine-scopolamine in basal narcosis).1


Pharmacognosy is the study of crude medicinal drugs-i.e., the raw materials of vegetable and animal origin which are used directly for medicinal purposes or in the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations.


Nevertheless, its most striking feature is its analgesic action-Therefore the present article is restricted to a discussion of the analgesic properties of morphine and morphine-like substances.


CLASSIFICATION


Natural drugs with morphine-like effects
Opium and medicinal preparations of opium, poppy straw (or poppy capsules), morphine and the principal secondary opium alkaloids.


Semi-synthetic drugs with morphine-like effects (derivatives of opium alkaloids)


For example: Benzylmorphine (peronine), ethylmorphine (dionine), diacetylmorphine (heroin), dihydrodesoxymorphine-D (desomorphine), ethyldihydromorphinone, methyldihydromorphinone, (metopon), monoacetylmorphine, α-isomorphine, β-isomorphine, γ-isomorphine, tetrahydroxydesoxymorphine, dihydromorphinone (dilaudid), allopseudocodeine, heterocodeine, isocodeine, pseudocodeine, dihydrocodeinone (dicodid), dihydrohydroxycodeinone (eucodal), morpholinylethylmorphine (pholcodin).


Synthetic drugs with morphine-like effects ([4] )


For example, representatives from the pethidine group, the methadone group, the morphinan group and the dithienylbutenylamine group.


The substances from these groups are prepared exclusively by synthesis from common chemicals not related to the poppy plant.

Definitions and Terminology

Morphine belongs to a large group of drugs designated in pharmacology as narcotics. In therapy a distinction is usually made between four principal types of narcotic - ([1] ) analgesics(pain-killing drugs), ([2] ) hypnotics(sleep-inducing drugs), ([3] ) sedatives(soothing drugs) and ([4] ) anaesthetics(drugs inducing unconsciousness). The lines of demarcation between these groups are not clearly drawn, and depend usually in part on the size of the dose.

Administered in proper doses and at the appropriate time, morphine can act either as a sedative, as a hypnotic, or-particularly in combination with other drugs-as an anaesthetic (for example, morphine-scopolamine in basal narcosis).1

Pharmacognosy is the study of crude medicinal drugs-i.e., the raw materials of vegetable and animal origin which are used directly for medicinal purposes or in the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations.

Nevertheless, its most striking feature is its analgesic action-Therefore the present article is restricted to a discussion of the analgesic properties of morphine and morphine-like substances.

CLASSIFICATION

Natural drugs with morphine-like effects
Opium and medicinal preparations of opium, poppy straw (or poppy capsules), morphine and the principal secondary opium alkaloids.

Semi-synthetic drugs with morphine-like effects (derivatives of opium alkaloids)

For example: Benzylmorphine (peronine), ethylmorphine (dionine), diacetylmorphine (heroin), dihydrodesoxymorphine-D (desomorphine), ethyldihydromorphinone, methyldihydromorphinone, (metopon), monoacetylmorphine, α-isomorphine, β-isomorphine, γ-isomorphine, tetrahydroxydesoxymorphine, dihydromorphinone (dilaudid), allopseudocodeine, heterocodeine, isocodeine, pseudocodeine, dihydrocodeinone (dicodid), dihydrohydroxycodeinone (eucodal), morpholinylethylmorphine (pholcodin).

Synthetic drugs with morphine-like effects ([4] )

For example, representatives from the pethidine group, the methadone group, the morphinan group and the dithienylbutenylamine group.

The substances from these groups are prepared exclusively by synthesis from common chemicals not related to the poppy plant.

Natural and Synthetic Drugs with Morphine-like Effects Considered from a Pharmacognostic1 Point of View

Ph.D. Arnold Nordal Professor of Pharmacognosy. Director of the Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Oslo, Norway

In the present article reference is made to the all-important part which the study of drugs and natural substances has played in the development of synthetic substances, including synthetic drugs with morphine-like effects. Advantages and disadvantages in the use of natural and synthetic drugs are discussed from the point of view of therapeutics, economics, and production technique. The subsequent section refers to the predominant role of the poppy plant in the world's production of morphine and morphine derivatives. Then follows a critical examination of the various drugs.

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